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Have you ever had a nasty infection that just won’t seem to go away? Or a runny nose that keeps coming back? You may have been dealing with a bacterium that is tolerant of, though not yet resistant to, antibiotics.
Antibiotic resistance is a huge problem, contributing to nearly 1.27 million deaths worldwide in 2019. But antibiotic tolerance is a covert threat that researchers have only recently begun to explore.
Antibiotic tolerance happens when a bacterium manages to survive for a long time after being exposed to an antibiotic. While antibiotic-resistant bacteria flourish even in the presence of an antibiotic, tolerant bacteria often exist in a dormant state, neither growing nor dying but putting up with the antibiotic until they can “reawaken” once the stress is gone. Tolerance has been linked to the spread of antibiotic resistance.
I am a microbiologist who studies antibiotic tolerance, and I seek to uncover what triggers tolerant bacteria to enter a protective dormant slumber. By understanding why bacteria have the ability to become tolerant, researchers hope to develop ways to avoid the spread of this ability. The exact mechanism that sets tolerance apart from resistance has been unclear. But one possible answer may reside in a process that has been overlooked for decades: how bacteria create their energy.
Cholera and antibiotic tolerance
Many antibiotics are designed to break through the bacteria’s outer defenses like a cannonball through a stone fortress. Resistant bacteria are immune to the cannonball because they can either destroy it before it damages their outer wall or change their own walls to be able to withstand the impact.
Tolerant bacteria can remove their wall entirely and avoid damage altogether. No wall, no target for the cannonball to smash. If the threat goes away before too long, the bacterium can rebuild its wall to protect it from other environmental dangers and resume normal functions. However, it is still unknown how bacteria know the antibiotic threat is gone, and what exactly triggers their reawakening.
My colleagues and I at the Dörr Lab at Cornell University are trying to understand processes of activation and reawakening in the tolerant bacteria responsible for cholera, Vibrio cholerae. Vibrio is rapidly evolving resistance against various types of antibiotics, and doctors are concerned. As of 2010, Vibrio is already resistant to 36 different antibiotics, and this number is expected to continue rising.
To study how Vibrio develops resistance, we chose a strain that is tolerant to a class of antibiotics called beta-lactams. Beta-lactams are the cannonball sent to destroy the bacteria’s fortress, and Vibrio adapts by activating two genes that temporarily remove its cell wall. I witnessed this phenomenon using a microscope. After removing its cell wall, the bacteria activate even more genes that morph it into fragile globs that can survive the effects of the antibiotic. Once the antibiotic is removed or degraded, Vibrio returns to its normal rod shape and continues to grow.
In people, this process of tolerance is seen when a doctor prescribes an antibiotic, typically doxycycline, to a patient infected with cholera. The antibiotic temporarily seems to stop the infection. But then the symptoms start back up again because the antibiotics never fully cleared the bacteria in the first place.
The ability to revert back to normal and grow after the antibiotic is gone is the key to tolerant survival. Exposing Vibrio to an antibiotic for a long enough time would eventually kill it. But a standard course of antibiotics often isn’t long enough to get rid of all the bacteria even in their fragile state.
However, taking a medicine for a prolonged period can harm healthy bacteria and cells, causing further discomfort and illness. Additionally, misuse and extended exposure to antibiotics can increase the chances of other bacteria residing in the body becoming resistant.
Other bacteria developing tolerance
Vibrio isn’t the only species to exhibit tolerance. In fact, researchers have recently identified many infectious bacteria that have developed tolerance. A bacteria family called Enterobacteriaceae, which include major food-borne disease pathogens Salmonella, Shigella and E. coli, are just a few of the many types of bacteria that are capable of antibiotic tolerance.
As every bacterium is unique, the way one develops tolerance seems to be as well. Some bacteria, like Vibrio, erase their cell walls. Others can alter their energy sources, increase their ability to move or simply pump out the antibiotic.
I recently found that a bacterium’s metabolism, or the way it breaks down “food” to make energy, may play a significant role in its ability to become tolerant. Different structures within a bacterium, including its outer wall, are made of specific building blocks like proteins. Stopping the bacterium’s ability to craft these pieces weakens its wall, making it more likely to take damage from the outside environment before it can take the wall down.
Tolerance and resistance are connected
Although there has been considerable research on how bacteria develop tolerance, a key piece of the puzzle that has been neglected is how tolerance leads to resistance.
In 2016, researchers discovered how to make bacteria tolerant in the laboratory. After repeated exposure to different antibiotics, E. coli cells were able to adapt and survive. DNA, the genetic material containing instructions for cell function, is a fragile molecule. When DNA is damaged rapidly by stress, such as antibiotic exposure, the cell’s repair mechanisms tend to mess up and cause mutations that can create resistance and tolerance. Because E. coli is similar to many different types of bacteria, these researchers’ findings revealed that, ironically, essentially any bacteria can develop tolerance if pushed to their limits by the antibiotics meant to kill them.
Another recent key discovery was that the longer bacteria remain tolerant, the more likely they are to develop mutations leading to resistance. Tolerance allows bacteria to develop a resistance mutation that reduces their chances of being killed during antibiotic treatment. This is especially relevant to bacterial communities often seen in biofilms that tend to coat high-touch surfaces in hospitals. Biofilms are slimy layers of bacteria that ooze a protective jelly that makes antibiotic treatment difficult and DNA sharing between microbes easy. They can induce bacteria to evolve resistance. These conditions are thought to mimic what could be happening during antibiotic-treated infections, in which many bacteria are living next to one another and sharing DNA.
Researchers are calling for more research into antibiotic tolerance with the hope that it will lead to more robust treatments in both infectious diseases and cancers. And there is reason to be hopeful. In one promising development, a mouse study found that decreasing tolerance also reduced resistance.
Meanwhile, there are steps everyone can take to aid in the battle against antibiotic tolerance and resistance. You can do this by taking an antibiotic exactly as prescribed by a doctor and finishing the entire bottle. Brief, inconsistent exposure to a medicine primes bacteria to become tolerant and eventually resistant. Smarter use of antibiotics by everyone can stop the evolution of tolerant bacteria.
Megan Keller, Ph.D. Candidate in Microbiology, Cornell University
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
LAKE COUNTY, Calif. — The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reported that it has completed another step in the process to complete the Sulphur Bank Mercury Mine Superfund Site cleanup plan.
The 160-acre Sulphur Bank Mercury Mine Superfund site sits on the shore of Clear Lake in Clearlake Oaks.
The plan proposes cleaning up significant portions of the site in Clearlake Oaks, specifically the mine area, the Elem Indian Colony and contaminated soils in the residential area to the southwest of the site.
The EPA said the extended public comment period for the plan closed on Monday.
The comment period had included a series of open houses, and in-person and virtual public hearings and question and answer sessions.
The next steps, expected to run into the fall and winter, include responding to all comments and documenting the final plan in an official document called a “record of decision.”
From this year through 2025, the EPS will gather data and prepare cleanup designs.
That will be followed in 2025 and 2026 by the beginning of the cleanup, which is estimated to take three to five years depending on what phase one reveals.
From 2023 to 2028, the EPA will continue studying the north wetlands, Clear Lake and sediment to see how best to control mercury and other contaminants in these areas.
Background and resources
To view the site’s website for other information, click here.
• Administrative record: To view the detailed documents on how EPA developed cleanup options, please visit the website’s site document and data tab or click here.
• Proposed plan brochure: To view at a glance information about the proposed plan, please click here.
• Paper copies: Several key site documents in the record, the proposed plan and other files are available in hard copy at the locations below. Please call locations to confirm hours/availability:
Redbud Library
14785 Burns Valley Road, Clearlake
Telephone: 707-994-5115
Lake County Library
1425 North High St., Lakeport
Telephone: 707-263-8817
Superfund Records Center
75 Hawthorne St.
San Francisco, CA 94105
Telephone: 415-947-8000
For any other questions related to the process or next steps, contact Gavin Pauley, the site’s community involvement coordinator, at
The U.S. Geological Survey reported that the earthquake occurred at 10:39 p.m. 4.6 miles west northwest of Cobb, at a depth of six tenths of a mile, just inside the Sonoma County line.
Many people, including this reporter, were alerted to the quake through a U.S. Geological Survey ShakeAlert on smartphones that said, “Emergency alert: Severe. Earthquake Detected! Drop, Cover, Hold On, Protect Yourself.”
“Wheeeee that was a fun shake,” Cobb resident Matt Smith wrote on Lake County News’ Facebook page.
Residents of other parts of the county — including Clearlake, Cobb, Glenhaven, Hidden Valley Lake, Kelseyville, Lucerne, Lakeport and Middletown — reported on social media that they also had felt the quake, and that it was powerful and “a doozy.”
It was followed by a 2.8-magnitude aftershock, one that was 2.5 in magnitude and a 3.3-magnitude quake, all in Sonoma County, and a 2.5-magnitude quake in Lake County, west northwest of Cobb.
As of 3 a.m. Wednesday, approximately 678 shake reports had been submitted to the U.S. Geological Survey from around Lake, Mendocino, Napa and Sonoma counties, the Bay Area, Folsom, Truckee and Glenbrook, Nevada.
Earlier on Tuesday, shortly after 4 p.m., there had been a 2.5-magnitude earthquake that occurred near Lake Pillsbury and due north of the area where the earthquakes near Cobb took place.
Shake reports can be made here.
Email Elizabeth Larson at
MATH will meet at 7 p.m. Thursday, April 13, in the Middletown Community Meeting Room/Library at 21256 Washington St., Middletown. The meeting is open to the public.
To join the meeting via Zoom click on this link; the meeting ID is 331 855 4843. Call in at 669-900-6833.
Starting at 7:05 p.m., the group will hear from guest speakers.
They will include Supervisor Moke Simon, who will give the first quarter update and take questions.
He will be followed by Andrew Amelung, the Cannabis Task Force Committee Program Manager for the Community Development Department, who will provide a brief update on the
progress of the Cannabis Task Force.
The group also will discuss strategies to engage community discussion, and Zoom equipment and operating needs, including volunteers.
The MATH Board includes Chair Monica Rosenthal, Vice Chair Todd Fiora, Secretary Ken Gonzalez, Rosemary Córdova and Bill Waite, and alternates Julia Bono and Tom Darms.
MATH — established by resolution of the Lake County Board of Supervisors on Dec. 12, 2006 — is a municipal advisory council serving the residents of Anderson Springs, Cobb, Coyote Valley (including Hidden Valley Lake), Long Valley and Middletown.
For more information email
Email Elizabeth Larson at
Assemblymember James C. Ramos (D-San Bernardino) introduced the measure, AB 226.
The return of remains and objects to the tribes is known as repatriation.
“Federal law — the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 — and the state California Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 2001 are decades old,” Ramos said. “NAGPRA and CalNAGPRA require the return of our ancestors’ remains and sacred objects to appropriate descendants. Yet, decades after passage of these acts, the UC system retains thousands and thousands of remains despite two highly critical state audits and recommendations released in 2020 and 2022.”
AB 226 would also prohibit the use of Native American remains or cultural items for teaching or research.
“UC’s intransigence in following the law is shameful, and prevents the respectful burial of remains and closure for the state’s more than 100 tribes,” Ramos said.
AB 226 is sponsored by the Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians and supported by the Morongo Band of Mission Indians, Habematolel Pomo of Upper Lake and Generation Up Inc..
The bill will now head to the Assembly Appropriations Committee.
Ramos is the first and only California Native American serving in the state’s legislature. He chairs the Assembly Committees on Rules.
City Manager Alan Flora told the Clearlake City Council on Thursday that city staffers are following up on numerous complaints about the Clearlake animal shelter, located at 6820 Old Highway 53 and run by North Bay Animal Services, based in Petaluma.
The situation arises as the population at the shelter in recent months has reached capacity — reported to be 70 dogs. It’s fallout from the pandemic that has been reported at shelters nationwide.
Lake County News reached out via email to North Bay Animal Services Executive Director Mark Scott after the meeting on Thursday and again by phone on Monday to ask for his comments about the situation but Scott did not respond.
The shelter facility, which is overseen by the Clearlake Police Department, underwent significant upgrades in 2020 under the leadership of then-Police Chief Andrew White, who left in December for the police chief job in Martinez.
The city awarded the contract for management of the animal shelter to North Bay Animal Services in August.
The contract term is for 10 years, at a cost of $375,000 per year.
It may be terminated without cause with six months’ written notice, and may be ended for cause with a written notice given 60 days ahead of time.
The contract requires North Bay Animal Services to provide patrol and respond to calls as dispatched; complete reports; testify in hearings; pick up animals; enforce local, state and federal laws related to animals; issue citations; investigate bite reports, animal cruelty or neglect, and public nuisance reports; oversee rabies control, including filing required reports with the county health department; and provide animal care and control services as part of disaster response.
Under the contract’s terms, there is to be one qualified animal control officer on duty from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. seven days a week, excluding federally recognized holidays.
The agreement addresses the animal population and euthanasia. It states, “Contractor will endeavor to operate under the No Kill philosophy. However, Contractor and City recognize that some animals will be humanely euthanized for public safety or animal health issues. Contractor is responsible for managing the shelter population to ensure space is available for additional intake.”
Community members complain to City Council
Flora had planned to give the council an update on the situation during his usual report at the end of the Thursday meeting.
However, he ended up addressing the matter earlier in the meeting in the midst of comments from several community members who complained about North Bay Animal Services’ performance.
Community members who spoke complained to the council during the meeting’s public comment portion, alleging a refusal to let volunteers walk dogs in an attempt to cover up conditions, donated blankets and bedding being thrown away rather than laundered and animals left in freezing cold kennels.
They raised questions about what is happening with the dogs being transferred to the organization’s Petaluma facility and pointed to a general lack of oversight at the shelter.
Rita Laufer, who worked for many years with the Animal Coalition, claimed that half the food donations from Clearlake are taken to Petaluma. She added that she thought that police department staff — including Chief Tim Hobbs, who oversaw it while a lieutenant, and Lt. Martin Snyder — did a better job of managing the facility.
They also reported issues about an untreated outbreak at the shelter of giardia, an infection that can be caused by coming in contact with infected feces, or contaminated soils or water sources.
The statements at the council meeting followed comments on social media in recent weeks that reported similar issues, along with pictures of kennels covered with feces, a result of the giardia outbreak.
On April 4, North Bay Animal Services posted a message on its Facebook page addressing what it called a “misinformation campaign” spreading on Facebook that included issues related to euthanasia reports and animal care in both its Clearlake and Petaluma shelters.
“The City of Clearlake animal shelter was struggling; we answered their call for help. City leadership acknowledges that the changes in animal housing, increased vet care, increased adoptions, increased response to animal control calls have made a huge difference for the citizens of Clearlake and the pets they love. We are committed to an increased social media presence for our Clearlake shelter,” the message said.
It also said, “Do not feed into the drama. If you have a question about what you’re seeing, ask the people who can provide an answer: shelter staff. Do not spread false accusations that you do not have first hand knowledge of.”
Also on April 4, North Bay Animal Services posted a community letter on its website that addressed many of the same issues in the Facebook page but at more length.
As of Monday night, the shelter’s website, now also run by North Bay Animal Services, shows 28 adoptable dogs.
However, during the shelter and pet update at the Clearlake City Council’s March 16 meeting, shelter staff acknowledged that not all of the adoptable dogs at the shelter have been showing up on the website, a point that Councilman Russ Cremer pressed them about fixing.
At that time, it was reported that the shelter’s live release rate was 99.9%.
City directs organization to make changes
Flora said on Thursday that not all of the statements made by the public during that night’s council meeting were accurate, although he didn’t state exactly what was not true.
However, Flora told the council, and Lake County News in a follow-up email, that he and Chief Hobbs — whose department oversees the animal shelter — met with Scott on March 29 to discuss issues at the shelter.
Flora said he made directives to staff regarding how to proceed.
Regarding the specific actions being taken, Flora said he directed Hobbs to start an investigation into the allegations about shelter conditions.
Ryan Peterson, a highly regarded detective who recently was promoted to lieutenant in the Clearlake Police Department, has been assigned to conduct that investigation, which Flora said has already started.
Flora said he ordered that the investigation be completed within 30 days.
In addition, Flora said he gave North Bay Animal Services two weeks to remove animals from the public workshop area at the Public Works building next to the shelter.
He said it was never the city’s intention to have animals housed long-term in that portion of the building, and that they need to be adopted out or other accommodations found.
Flora said that Hobbs can approve temporary housing there. Such was the case a few weeks ago, when the police department had an arrest warrant for someone with more than 20 dogs, which had to be accommodated. He said they also can’t use temporary kennels except for transport.
There will be a change in access to the facilities, as Flora said there are areas that unauthorized people shouldn't be wandering around in.
He said the issues with the shelter’s laundry and washers have been resolved. A heavier duty washing machine was needed and he said the city is looking into what they can do to accommodate more reliable laundry services.
Flora pointed to the requirement in the city’s contract that North Bay Animal Services follow the UC Davis Shelter Medicine care and cleaning protocol while operating the shelter. He said the city is asking North Bay Animal Services for its cleaning policy.
The organization also will be required to provide monthly reports that will be submitted to the City Council. Flora said the city is asking for additional information relating to the number of veterinary visits and spay/neuter surgeries performed.
Lt. Peterson’s new role in oversight of the shelter will include a monthly meeting with North Bay Animal Services and a walk-through of the shelter, Flora said.
Flora said he can’t direct it, but he’s recommending that North Bay Animal Services appoint a lead worker or supervisor at the shelter.
That’s in response to complaints he’s received that volunteers and others don’t have anyone at the site to turn to for directions.
Flora said the investigation is ongoing and more follow-up is planned.
On Monday, Flora told Lake County News that he and Hobbs went over with Scott the issues at the shelter and that they expect North Bay Animal Services to comply with the city’s requirements.
Regarding the contract, Flora said the city is less than one year into the 10-year contract with North Bay Animal Services.
“We have plenty of flexibility to terminate if needed but our focus is straightening things out and moving forward together,” Flora said.
North Bay’s full Facebook post from April 4 is published below.
“There is a misinformation campaign spreading on facebook that we would like to clear up. We’d like to address 2 areas: euthanasia records, and animal care in our Petaluma shelter and our Clearlake shelter.
“There are questions about our euthanasia numbers. Our vet clinics serve our many jurisdictions, not just Petaluma. For that reason it’s not possible to compare their reported numbers against a smaller (understandably) number that we report to the City of Petaluma. For more details, see this web post: https://northbayanimalservices.org/community-letter/
“Questions have been asked about the increased pet population at the Petaluma shelter, and the level of care at the Clearlake shelter. Since assuming the Petaluma contract, the human population of our city has increased, so has the pet population. We have added pet housing, play yards and storage facilities to accommodate that need. What’s more, every shelter across the nation is facing this increase in animal shelter population. For more information, check the details on the website: https://northbayanimalservices.org/community-letter/
“The City of Clearlake animal shelter was struggling; we answered their call for help. City leadership acknowledges that the changes in animal housing, increased vet care, increased adoptions, increased response to animal control calls have made a huge difference for the citizens of Clearlake and the pets they love. We are committed to an increased social media presence for our Clearlake shelter.
“What can you do?
“Do not feed into the drama. If you have a question about what you’re seeing, ask the people who can provide an answer: shelter staff.
“Do not spread false accusations that you do not have first hand knowledge of.
“Come visit either shelter at any time. We are open to all. You can easily walk in and view the animals for yourself. No appointment necessary.
“Come volunteer at the shelter! We have plenty of tasks that need to be done, from laundry to dog walking to cuddling cats. Everyone is welcome!”
Email Elizabeth Larson at