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Written by: Michelle L.D. Hanlon, University of Mississippi and Greg Autry, Arizona State University

Published: 28 November 2021

 

On Nov. 15, 2021, Russia destroyed one of its own old satellites using a missile launched from the surface of the Earth, creating a massive debris cloud that threatens many space assets, including astronauts onboard the International Space Station. This happened only two weeks after the United Nations General Assembly First Committee formally recognized the vital role that space and space assets play in international efforts to better the human experience – and the risks military activities in space pose to those goals.

The U.N. First Committee deals with disarmament, global challenges and threats to peace that affect the international community. On Nov. 1, it approved a resolution that creates an open-ended working group. The goals of the group are to assess current and future threats to space operations, determine when behavior may be considered irresponsible, “make recommendations on possible norms, rules and principles of responsible behaviors,” and “contribute to the negotiation of legally binding instruments” – including a treaty to prevent “an arms race in space.”

We are two space policy experts with specialties in space law and the business of commercial space. We are also the president and vice president at the National Space Society, a nonprofit space advocacy group. It is refreshing to see the U.N. acknowledge the harsh reality that peace in space remains uncomfortably tenuous. This timely resolution has been approved as activities in space become ever more important and – as shown by the Russian test – tensions continue to rise.

The 1967 Outer Space Treaty

Outer space is far from a lawless vacuum.

Activities in space are governed by the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, which is currently ratified by 111 nations. The treaty was negotiated in the shadow of the Cold War when only two nations – the Soviet Union and the U.S. – had spacefaring capabilities.

While the Outer Space Treaty offers broad principles to guide the activities of nations, it does not offer detailed “rules of the road.” Essentially, the treaty assures freedom of exploration and use of space to all humankind. There are just two caveats to this, and multiple gaps immediately present themselves.

The first caveat states that the Moon and other celestial bodies must be used exclusively for peaceful purposes. It omits the rest of space in this blanket prohibition. The only guidance offered in this respect is found in the treaty’s preamble, which recognizes a “common interest” in the “progress of the exploration and use of space for peaceful purposes.” The second caveat says that those conducting activities in space must do so with “due regard to the corresponding interests of all other States Parties to the Treaty.”

A major problem arises from the fact that the treaty does not offer clear definitions for either “peaceful purposes” or “due regard.”

While the Outer Space Treaty does specifically prohibit placing nuclear weapons or weapons of mass destruction anywhere in space, it does not prohibit the use of conventional weapons in space or the use of ground-based weapons against assets in space. Finally, it is also unclear if some weapons – like China’s new nuclear capable partial-orbit hypersonic missile – should fall under the treaty’s ban.

The vague military limitations built into the treaty leave more than enough room for interpretation to result in conflict.

Space is militarized, conflict is possible

Space has been used for military purposes since Germany’s first V2 rocket launch in 1942.

Many early satellites, GPS technology, a Soviet Space Station and even NASA’s space shuttle were all either explicitly developed for or have been used for military purposes.

With increasing commercialization, the lines between military and civilian uses of space are less blurry. Most people are able to identify terrestrial benefits of satellites like weather forecasts, climate monitoring and internet connectivity but are unaware that they also increase agricultural yields and monitor human rights violations. The rush to develop a new space economy based on activities in and around Earth and the Moon suggests that humanity’s economic dependence on space will only increase.

However, satellites that provide terrestrial benefits could or already do serve military functions as well. We are forced to conclude that the lines between military and civilian uses remain sufficiently indistinct to make a potential conflict more likely than not. Growing commercial operations will also provide opportunities for disputes over operational zones to provoke governmental military responses.

Military testing

While there has not yet been any direct military conflict in space, there has been an escalation of efforts by nations to prove their military prowess in and around space. Russia’s test is only the most recent example. In 2007, China tested an anti-satellite weapon and created an enormous debris cloud that is still causing problems. The International Space Station had to dodge a piece from that Chinese test as recently as Nov. 10, 2021.

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Similar demonstrations by the U.S. and India were far less destructive in terms of creating debris, but they were no more welcomed by the international community.

The new U.N. resolution is important because it sets in motion the development of new norms, rules and principles of responsible behavior. Properly executed, this could go a long way toward providing the guardrails needed to prevent conflict in space.

From guidelines to enforcement

The U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space has been addressing space activities since 1959.

However, the remit of the 95-member committee is to promote international cooperation and study legal problems arising from the exploration of outer space. It lacks any ability to enforce the principles and guidelines set forth in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty or even to compel actors into negotiations.

The U.N. resolution from November 2021 requires the newly created working group to meet two times a year in both 2022 and 2023. While this pace of activity is glacial compared with the speed of commercial space development, it is a major step in global space policy.

Michelle L.D. Hanlon, Professor of Air and Space Law, University of Mississippi and Greg Autry, Clinical Professor of Space Leadership, Policy and Business, Arizona State University

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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Written by: Elizabeth Larson

Published: 27 November 2021

LAKE COUNTY, Calif. — A new intervention specialist who will work with the Lakeport Police Department on de-escalating crisis situations and working with homeless community members has been selected.

Lakeport Police Chief Brad Rasmussen and Lake Family Resource Center Executive Director Lisa Morrow introduced Alicia Adams at the Lakeport City Council meeting on Nov. 16.

Adams began her new position as community crisis response specialist at the start of this month, Rasmussen said.

She is part of a program created by a partnership between Lakeport Police and the Lake Family Resource Center.

The Lakeport City Council approved the program in October and the memorandum of agreement was finalized in the weeks since then.

Although hired and trained by Lake Family Resource Center, Adams will be based at the Lakeport Police station at 2025 S. Main St.

She will be teamed primarily with Lakeport Police’s homeless liaison officer to do outreach to homeless individuals and respond to other calls — including those that involve domestic violence and sexual assault — when a crisis response is needed.

Adams has been both a volunteer and a staffer for Lake Family Resource Center since 2015, and was part of the California HOPE program the organization initiated to support Lake County residents affected by the Mendocino Complex fires.

Morrow thanked the city council for the opportunity to work with the police department on the program.

She said it was relatively smooth putting the memorandum of understanding together.

Morrow said Adams is well qualified for the position.

“I am so happy to be a part of this project,” said Adams, adding that she’s looking forward to getting to work.

Email Elizabeth Larson at This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.. Follow her on Twitter, @ERLarson, or Lake County News, @LakeCoNews.

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Written by: California Governor's Office of Emergency Services

Published: 27 November 2021

LAKE COUNTY, Calif. — As the deadline for California wildfires survivors to enroll in the state's Consolidated Debris Removal Program approaches, state contractors continue to make progress removing eligible debris from properties whose owners already have enrolled in the program.

To date, crews have removed burned metal, concrete ash and contaminated soil from 458 properties.

That includes properties in Lake County impacted by the August Cache fire, which occurred in Clearlake.

The state reported that 64 site assessments and 64 asbestos assessments have been completed in Lake County, with 40 asbestos abatements completed. Debris removal has been completed on 60 properties.

The 458 cleared properties represent 30% of the 1,477 properties in 10 counties participating in the full debris removal program, the state reported.

Another 212 properties are participating in the hazardous trees only element of the program.

Under the program, administered by the California Governor's Office of Emergency Services, or Cal OES, and the California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery, or CalRecycle, in collaboration with county officials, participating property owners incur no direct costs.

Property owners opt into the program by submitting a right-of-entry form, or ROE, to their county, which allows the state to begin work on their property and incur no direct costs for the removal of burned metal, concrete, ash and contaminated soil from their properties.

Interested homeowners in Alpine, El Dorado, Lake, Lassen, Nevada, Placer, Plumas, Siskiyou, Tehama and Trinity counties can still sign up for the program by Nov. 30.

Find more information about the state’s Consolidated Debris Removal Program, including contacts and county-specific ROE forms here.

The program is also now available to property owners with losses from the Hopkins fire in Mendocino County, the Washington fire in Tuolumne County, the Windy fire in Tulare County, and the French fire in Kern County. The deadline for submitting ROEs for these counties will be announced shortly. Property owners should speak with their county government to learn more about the program.

Property owners cannot start rebuilding until fire debris is removed from their properties and soil samples taken from the property meet state environmental health and safety standards.”

Officials said property owners also can do the work themselves or hire a private contractor, but the work must meet the same state standards as the State Program. If work is started by the property owner or contractor, they become ineligible for the State Program.

Steps left to complete

Before homeowners can begin rebuilding, cleared properties need additional work including:

• Separate contractors collect soil samples for verification at a laboratory that they meet state environmental health and safety standards.

• Contractors next may install erosion control measures.

• Certified arborists or professional foresters assess wildfire-damaged trees in danger of falling on the public or public infrastructure for removal by separate contractors.

• Finally, state officials inspect the property to verify all completed work meets state standards. Debris officials submit a final inspection report to local officials to approve the property for reconstruction.

Property owners can track progress on the Debris Operations Dashboard for the 2021 statewide wildfires. The dashboard is updated every hour and provides users with the ability to search by county or address.